Folklinguistic perceptions and attitudes towards Kenyan varieties of Swahili

This paper examines the perceptions of Kenyans towards the way other Kenyans speak Swahili from a Folklinguistic perspective. The study involved two main tasks. In the first task, informants were provided with blank maps of the country and asked to identify areas where they thought there was a distinct way of speaking Swahili. In the second task, they were provided with the same map showing Kenyan’s eight provinces and asked to rank them in terms of correctness, attractiveness and closeness to the way they speak Swahili. The results show little or no difference between the rankings of correctness versus pleasantness of Swahili varieties. The study also shows that Kenyans do not identify with the normative variety modeled on the standardized or Kenyan coastal Swahili which is used in the schools or mass media. Similar to other studies in perceptual dialectology, the informants’ judgments were influenced by their background knowledge and stereotypes about different regions that have little or no relationship with linguistics factors per se. Unlike other studies in perceptual dialectology however, languages that are not the object of study have a strong influence on respondents’ perceptions. Beside the ethnic stereotypes that characterize Kenya’s multilingual discourse, Kenyans’ attitudes towards varieties of Swahili seem to be filtered through the lens of a competitive hegemonic language that has enjoyed historical advantage. As a result, the promotion of an idealized variety of Swahili in light of the dominance of English and the continued use of local languages is not likely to increase its acceptability as a national and official language

Application of Marketing Mix Strategies and the Effect on Market Performance of Motor Vehicle Dealers in Kenya

The environment in which organizations operate is constantly changing with different micro and macro-economic factors influencing the organization’s performance. Coping with the increasingly competitive environment has called on firms to rethink their marketing strategies. The need to respond to market changes on a daily basis, and the difficulty of predicting the direction of such changes means that organizations must strategically focus on their core competences and capabilities. The World Bank report (2015) clearly indicates that motor vehicles imports in Kenya have increased with 2.0% in the year 2015. However, this ratio keeps on changing depending on macro-economic factors such as increase or decrease on imports duty. Entry of new competitors into the market has caused a drastic change not only to the specific companies operations, but also to their products and services in the demanding market. The competition in the markets has created an attention for these companies to review their marketing strategies in order to remain relevant in the market. One of the determinant of performance is marketing mix focusing on the product, its price, its position and how well it is known by its customers. Studies show that application of marketing mix strategies influence the level of sales. However, minimal research exists on this relationship. Therefore, this study sought to establish the effect of marketing practices on market performance of Motor vehicle Dealers in Kenya. The study adopted four major practices namely; product strategies, price strategies, positioning strategies and promotion strategies and market performance as the dependent variable. Porters Five forces model, Resource based view model, stakeholders’ theory and pricing theory were applied to explain the empirical literature. The study area was in Nairobi County, while target population of the study was the 7 major Dealers in cars. The study sampled at least one respondent from each management offices in the marketing department. Therefore, the study target a total of 21 respondents. Data was collected using self-administered questionnaires. Descriptive statistics such as frequencies, percentages, means and standard deviations will be used to analyse the data. A regression model was used to measure and explain the relationship of the study variables. The study concludes that the four strategies namely; product strategies, price strategies, positioning strategies and promotion strategies had a significant effect on performance. The study recommends that to achieve a high output, there is need to utilise all the four strategies as each has a specific contribution to the performance. Keywords: Marketing mix, Product, Pricing, Positioning, Promotion, market performance, motor vehicle dealers DOI: 10.7176/EJBM/11-27-06 Publication date:September 30th 201

Outcome after acute traumatic subdural haematoma in Kenya: a single-centre experience

Background Acute subdural haematoma (ASDH) is one of the most common traumatic neurosurgical emergencies with a high mortality rate. However, few studies have examined prognostic factors of outcome in isolated traumatic ASDH.Methods We reviewed the records of patients who were diagnosed with traumatic ASDH between January 2000 and December 2009. Analysis was carried out using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 11.5 and multivariate logistic regression analysis used to evaluate the influence of clinical variables on outcome.Results A total of 259 patients were diagnosed with acute subdural hematomas during the study period. The mean age was 41.1 years + 19.659 and 223 (86.1%) were men while 36 (13.9%) were women. The most common cause of injury was assault (44.8%) with road traffic and falls accounting for 24.7% and 30.5%. Fifty two patients (20.1%) died while hospitalized while good functional recovery was attained by 118 (45.6%). Patients aged older than 61 years had a significantly higher mortality rate (30.6%) and a lower rate of good functional recovery (24.5%) (P=0.073). Of the patients with GCS scores <8, 38 (65.5%) died as compared to 4 (3.5%) deaths in patients with scores ranging from 13 to 15. Further, a history of loss of consciousness and the length of time between the injury and operative decompression significantly influenced the final outcome.Conclusion An increased risk of death occurs in patients who are over 61 years of age and have lower preoperative GCS, the presence of pupillary abnormalities and a long interval between trauma and decompression. The findings would help clinicians determine management criteria and improve survival

Teacher Factors Influencing Effective Implementation of Artisan and Craft Curriculum in Community Colleges in Kenya

The study examined the influence of teacher factors to effective implementation of Artisan and Craft courses in community colleges in Nairobi, Kajiado and Machakos counties, Kenya. Three teacher variables- teacher qualifications, teaching experience and levels of motivation were studied. The study adopted the mixed methods research design. The sample comprised 24 Artisan and Craft teachers and four directors of community colleges.  The study triangulated questionnaires and interview guides which were content-and face-validated and reliability determined using Cronbach’s alpha.  Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics while qualitative data were analyzed and presented in form of narratives and direct quotations. The findings showed that teacher qualifications, teaching experience and teacher motivation had a high influence on the implementation of Artisan and Craft curriculum. Based on the findings, the study recommends employment of more qualified teachers, adoption of effective teacher motivation strategies and capacity building for teachers to ensure effective implementation of Artisan and Craft curriculum. Moreover, further studies on a wider geographic spectrum or a replication of this study in other parts of the country are recommended

Characterization of Surface Deformation Behavior, Mechanical and Physical Properties of Modified-clay Bricks

The demand for building material is ever increasing owing to population growth. Compacted clay bricks are an important integral building material especially for low cost durable and affordable housing segment. This is a valued building material since its properties can be modified to suit various loading conditions.  In this paper, the mechanical and physical properties of clay bricks modified with varying proportions of sawdust and polystyrene are determined. Increment of non-clay material proportion in the modified-clay bricks increases their porosity and water absorbency while their bulk densities, compressive and flexural strengths decreases. The use is made of Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) method to assess the surface deformation behavior of the modified-clay bricks under uniaxial compressive loading. The distribution of surface deformation as assessed through PIV method is relatively uniform in pure-clay bricks while modified-clay bricks indicates a non-uniform deformation localized near the loading point at low strains. The strain distribution progressively spread out in the modified-clay brick as the failure point is approached. Keywords: Modified-clay brick, Digital Image Correlation, deformation, Particle Image Velocimetry, Characterisation

Design, implementation and evaluation of a national campaign to distribute nine million free LLINs to children under five years of age in Tanzania.

BACKGROUND\ud \ud After a national voucher scheme in 2004 provided pregnant women and infants with highly subsidized insecticide-treated nets (ITNs), use among children under five years (U5s) in mainland Tanzania increased from 16% in 2004 to 26.2% in 2007. In 2008, the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare planned a catch-up campaign to rapidly and equitably deliver a free long-lasting insecticidal net (LLIN) to every child under five years in Tanzania.\ud \ud METHODS\ud \ud The ITN Cell, a unit within the National Malaria Control Programme (NMCP), coordinated the campaign on behalf of the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare. Government contractors trained and facilitated local government officials to supervise village-level volunteers on a registration of all U5s and the distribution and issuing of LLINs. The registration results formed the basis for the LLIN order and delivery to village level. Caregivers brought their registration coupons to village issuing posts during a three-day period where they received LLINs for their U5s. Household surveys in five districts assessed ITN ownership and use immediately after the campaign.\ud \ud RESULTS\ud \ud Nine donors contributed to the national campaign that purchased and distributed 9.0 million LLINs at an average cost of $7.07 per LLIN, including all campaign-associated activities. The campaign covered all eight zones of mainland Tanzania, the first region being covered separately during an integrated measles immunization/malaria LLIN distribution in August 2008, and was implemented one zone at a time from March 2009 until May 2010. ITN ownership at household level increased from Tanzania's 2008 national average of 45.7% to 63.4%, with significant regional variations. ITN use among U5s increased from 28.8% to 64.1%, a 2.2-fold increase, with increases ranging from 22.1-38.3% percentage points in different regions.\ud \ud CONCLUSION\ud \ud A national-level LLIN distribution strategy that fully engaged local government authorities helped avoid additional burden on the healthcare system. Distribution costs per net were comparable to other public health interventions. Particularly among rural residents, ITN ownership and use increased significantly for the intended beneficiaries. The upcoming universal LLIN distribution and further behaviour change communication will further improve ITN ownership and use in 2010-2011

Exploring Plasmodium falciparum Var Gene Expression to Assess Host Selection Pressure on Parasites During Infancy

In sub-Saharan Africa, children below 5 years bear the greatest burden of severe malaria because they lack naturally acquired immunity that develops following repeated exposure to infections by Plasmodium falciparum. Antibodies to the surface of P. falciparum infected erythrocytes (IE) play an important role in this immunity. In children under the age of 6 months, relative protection from severe malaria is observed and this is thought to be partly due to trans-placental acquired protective maternal antibodies. However, the protective effect of maternal antibodies has not been fully established, especially the role of antibodies to variant surface antigens (VSA) expressed on IE. Here, we assessed the immune pressure on parasites infecting infants using markers associated with the acquisition of naturally acquired immunity to surface antigens. We hypothesized that, if maternal antibodies to VSA imposed a selection pressure on parasites, then the expression of a relatively conserved subset of var genes called group A var genes in infants should change with waning maternal antibodies. To test this, we compared their expression in parasites from children between 0 and 12 months and above 12 months of age. The transcript quantity and the proportional expression of group A var subgroup, including those containing domain cassette 13, were positively associated with age during the first year of life, which contrasts with above 12 months. This was accompanied by a decline in infected erythrocyte surface antibodies and an increase in parasitemia during this period. The observed increase in group A var gene expression with age in the first year of life, when the maternal antibodies are waning and before acquisition of naturally acquired antibodies with repeated exposure, is consistent with the idea that maternally acquired antibodies impose a selection pressure on parasites that infect infants and may play a role in protecting these infants against severe malaria

Reported reasons for not using a mosquito net when one is available: a review of the published literature

Background: A review of the barriers to mosquito net use in malaria-endemic countries has yet to be presented in the published literature despite considerable research interest in this area. This paper partly addresses this gap by reviewing one component of the evidence base; namely, published research pertaining to self-reported reasons for not using a mosquito net among net 'owning' individuals. It was anticipated that the review findings would potentially inform an intervention or range of interventions best suited to promoting greater net use amongst this group. Method. Studies were sought via a search of the Medline database. The key inclusion criteria were: that study participants could be identified as owning a mosquito net or having a mosquito net available for use; that these participants on one or more occasions were identified or self-reported as not using the mosquito net; and that reasons for not using the mosquito net were reported. Studies meeting these criteria were included irrespective of mosquito net type. Results: A total of 22 studies met the inclusion criteria. Discomfort, primarily due to heat, and perceived (low) mosquito density were the most widely identified reason for non-use. Social factors, such as sleeping elsewhere, or not sleeping at all, were also reported across studies as were technical factors related to mosquito net use (i.e. not being able to hang a mosquito net or finding it inconvenient to hang) and the temporary unavailability of a normally available mosquito net (primarily due to someone else using it). However, confidence in the reported findings was substantially undermined by a range of methodological limitations and a dearth of dedicated research investigation. Conclusions: The findings of this review should be considered highly tentative until such time as greater quantities of dedicated, well-designed and reported studies are available in the published literature. The current evidence-base is not sufficient in scope or quality to reliably inform mosquito net promoting interventions or campaigns targeted at individuals who own, but do not (reliably) use, mosquito nets

Randomized controlled field trial to assess the immunogenicity and safety of rift valley fever clone 13 vaccine in livestock

BACKGROUND:Although livestock vaccination is effective in preventing Rift Valley fever (RVF) epidemics, there are concerns about safety and effectiveness of the only commercially available RVF Smithburn vaccine. We conducted a randomized controlled field trial to evaluate the immunogenicity and safety of the new RVF Clone 13 vaccine, recently registered in South Africa. METHODS:In a blinded randomized controlled field trial, 404 animals (85 cattle, 168 sheep, and 151 goats) in three farms in Kenya were divided into three groups. Group A included males and non-pregnant females that were randomized and assigned to two groups; one vaccinated with RVF Clone 13 and the other given placebo. Groups B included animals in 1st half of pregnancy, and group C animals in 2nd half of pregnancy, which were also randomized and either vaccinated and given placebo. Animals were monitored for one year and virus antibodies titers assessed on days 14, 28, 56, 183 and 365. RESULTS:In vaccinated goats (N = 72), 72% developed anti-RVF virus IgM antibodies and 97% neutralizing IgG antibodies. In vaccinated sheep (N = 77), 84% developed IgM and 91% neutralizing IgG antibodies. Vaccinated cattle (N = 42) did not develop IgM antibodies but 67% developed neutralizing IgG antibodies. At day 14 post-vaccination, the odds of being seropositive for IgG in the vaccine group was 3.6 (95% CI, 1.5 - 9.2) in cattle, 90.0 (95% CI, 25.1 - 579.2) in goats, and 40.0 (95% CI, 16.5 - 110.5) in sheep. Abortion was observed in one vaccinated goat but histopathologic analysis did not indicate RVF virus infection. There was no evidence of teratogenicity in vaccinated or placebo animals. CONCLUSIONS:The results suggest RVF Clone 13 vaccine is safe to use and has high (>90%) immunogenicity in sheep and goats but moderate (> 65%) immunogenicity in cattle

Changing Patterns of Malaria Epidemiology between 2002 and 2010 in Western Kenya: The Fall and Rise of Malaria

The impact of insecticide treated nets (ITNs) on reducing malaria incidence is shown mainly through data collection from health facilities. Routine evaluation of long-term epidemiological and entomological dynamics is currently unavailable. In Kenya, new policies supporting the provision of free ITNs were implemented nationwide in June 2006. To evaluate the impacts of ITNs on malaria transmission, we conducted monthly surveys in three sentinel sites with different transmission intensities in western Kenya from 2002 to 2010.Longitudinal samplings of malaria parasite prevalence in asymptomatic school children and vector abundance in randomly selected houses were undertaken monthly from February 2002. ITN ownership and usage surveys were conducted annually from 2004 to 2010. Asymptomatic malaria parasite prevalence and vector abundances gradually decreased in all three sites from 2002 to 2006, and parasite prevalence reached its lowest level from late 2006 to early 2007. The abundance of the major malaria vectors, Anopheles funestus and An. gambiae, increased about 5-10 folds in all study sites after 2007. However, the resurgence of vectors was highly variable between sites and species. By 2010, asymptomatic parasite prevalence in Kombewa had resurged to levels recorded in 2004/2005, but the resurgence was smaller in magnitude in the other sites. Household ITN ownership was at 50-70% in 2009, but the functional and effective bed net coverage in the population was estimated at 40.3%, 49.4% and 28.2% in 2010 in Iguhu, Kombewa, and Marani, respectively.The resurgence in parasite prevalence and malaria vectors has been observed in two out of three sentinel sites in western Kenya despite a high ownership of ITNs. The likely factors contributing to malaria resurgence include reduced efficacy of ITNs, insecticide resistance in mosquitoes and lack of proper use of ITNs. These factors should be targeted to avoid further resurgence of malaria transmission